Autor: Paulina Stelmaszczyk

Based on sources follow the questions. Make conclusion.

a. Look at the photo. Who was the person in the picture?

b. Read the quote. Explain why it is considered to be the beginning of the Cold War. Name the economic implications of the Iron Curtain.

c. Read a fragment of the Truman Doctrine. Explain why the programme is a manifestation of the Cold War?

d. Watch the film and answer the question below: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ra6FeVwAQeo

Why did the USSR begin the Berlin Blockade?
How did the West react to the Blockade.
What was the Berlin Airlift?
Discuss the impact of the Berlin Crisis on political situation.

Source 1

Source 2 Quote – „The Sinews of Peace” („Iron Curtain Speech).

“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow. Police rules come from Moscow […]”

Source 3 Thruman doctrine (fragment)

Today nearly every nation must choose between two options.One way of life is based on the will of the majority, with […] free elections, […] freedom of speech and belief, and freedom from political oppression. The other option is based […] terror and oppression,[…] the lack of free elections, and limited personal freedom. […] U.S. policy must help the free nations that oppose the oppression of armed minorities or aggression from outside.

(https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/trudoc.asp)

Source 4 The Berlin Blockade and Airlift

Based on sources follow the questions. Make conclusion.

a. Look at the maps. Consider the situation of Germany after WWII. How Germany and Berlin was divided?

b. Look at the picture, recognize people in the photo. Who were they?

c. Read parts of the Potsdam Conference resolution, talk about the political and economic changes which were agreed to be implemented in Germany.

d. Which paragraphs of the quoted passages can be associated with changes of borders in post-war Europe? In which way?

SOURCE 1. The division of Germany into the Occupation Zones

Source 2. The Big Three

Source 3 The Potsdam Conference resolution (fragments)

THE PRINCIPLES TO GOVERN THE TREATMENT OF GERMANY IN THE INITIAL CONTROL PERIOD

A.POLITICAL PRINCIPLES […]

3. The purposes of the occupation of Germany by which the Control Council shall be guided are:

(i) The complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany and the elimination or control of all German industry that could be used for military production. […]

(a) All German land, naval and air forces, the SS., SA., SD., and Gestapo […] shall be completely and finally abolished […]

(b) All arms, ammunition and implements of war and all specialized facilities for their production shall be held at the disposal of the Allies or destroyed […] all aircraft and all arms. ammunition and implements of war shall be prevented.

(ii) To convince the German people that they have suffered a total military defeat and that they cannot escape responsibility for what […] the fanatical Nazi resistance have destroyed German economy and made chaos and suffering […]

(iii) To destroy the National Socialist Party and its affiliated and supervised organizations, to dissolve all Nazi institutions, to ensure that they are not revived […]

4. All Nazi laws which provided the basis of the Hitler regime or established discriminations on grounds of race, creed, or political opinion shall be abolished. No such discriminations, whether legal, administrative or otherwise, shall be tolerated. […]

B. ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES.

12. […] the German economy shall be decentralized for the purpose of eliminating the present excessive concentration of economic power as exemplified in particular by cartels, syndicates, trusts and other monopolistic arrangements.

13. In organizing the German Economy, primary emphasis shall be given to the development of agriculture and peaceful domestic industries.

[…] The Three Governments, having considered the question in all its aspects, recognize that the transfer to Germany of German populations, […] Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, will have to be undertaken. They agree that any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner.

[…]The Czechoslovak Government, the Polish Provisional Government and the Control Council in Hungary are at the same time being informed […]

https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/decade17.asp

LESSON 1

Scan a QR-code

YOUR GOALS:

-The Post – War Agreement in Germany 
-The Berlin Crisis and the Creation of the FRG and GDR
-The economic, political and social situation in the FRG and in the GDR
-The Autumn of Nations in Germany and fall of the Wall

Before the lesson:

Ask your family members about the Berlin Wall and division of Germany (personal stories of parents/grandparents, memories about The East and The West Germany).

Go to https://www.1989.centropa.org Get a look, do some research.

The World War II and bipolar world.

Look at the maps.
Do you remember the agreements of the Potsdam Conference?
What was a situation of Germany after the WWII?
Why Berlin was 'the island in the red Sea’?

WORKING GROUPS:

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Present your answers and conclusions during the next lesson.

LESSON 2

SHORT REVIEW

POST-ITS!
Write short information related to life in Germany States and put them in right places. Discuss.

LET’S PRESENT YOUR TASKS

CONCLUSION

Is the division of Germany a symbol of Cold War?

Why wall is the symbol?

What does it symbolize?

The wall:
-separated families, friends, and lovers.
-was built to prevent people from the Eastern Bloc from escaping to the West.
-was not only a physical barrier but also a psychological one (people lost their homes and their jobs) .
-was a result of political tensions between the Soviet Union and the Western powers, which had been growing since the end of World War II.

For this reasons, the wall became a symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe. The fall of the wall was a significant moment in history and marked the end of the Cold War. The fall of the wall also led to the reunification of Germany, which had been divided for almost thirty years.

HOMEWORK

Write an essay on one of the following topics:

1. Did the Berlin wall divide or unite the inhabitants of Berlin? Take a side on the problem. Give political, social and economic arguments.
2. Why could the division of Germany be considered as a manifestation of the Cold War? Justify your answer. Give political, social and economic arguments.
   
   
   
   

How (to which groups) today’s society can be divided and how it was divided in the past?

Feudalism is a system of fiefdoms, or social and economic relations based on the relationships between vassals and lords. (Feudalizm – średniowieczny porządek gospodarki i społeczeństwa opierający się na zależnościach między wasalami i seniorami.)

Estate – stan – groups of people, they have their own laws and duties.

Lords granted land (fiefs) and in return secured the allegiance (wierność), advice and aid (wsparcie) through military service, if needed, of their vassals. It could be laymen (świeccy) and clergy (duchowni).

The relationships between them can be presented in a graph called the feudal pyramid (ladder).

1. The most important role in that social structure was suzerain. He was the most powerful one in this strukture.
   Suzeren (suzerain, overlord) to osoba będąca najwyższym seniorem. Był nim najczęściej władca, który nie był niczyim wasalem (np. emperor or pope). He was independent.
2. The mesne lord was landowner, what was his power – he gives land to the vassals (benefice, fiefs). A feudal lord who was lord to his own tenants on land held from a superior lord (overlord).
   
   LAND:
   Benefice – beneficjum –  a grant of land for life as a reward for services.
   Fief – lenno -lands granted by overlord to his vassals.(ziemie nadawane przez seniora swojemu poddanemu).
   Liege lord – pan feudalny, senior, posiadacz ziemnski, feudał = senior, overlord
   
3. Vassals (wasale) were dependent on him (lords, nobles). They was loyal to overlord and they kept order on their lands.
4. Knights – provides protection on the land and serfs. They were vassals to lords.
5. Serfs/Peasants – provides food and paid taxes.
   Rent – Czynsz – stałe świadczenie wnoszone przez chłopów na rzecz właściciela gruntów w zamian za ich użytkowanie.
   
   immunity – immunitet
   commendation ceremony and investiture -komendacja i inwestytura
   

1. GODPODARKA FOLWARCZNO – PAŃSZCZYŹNIANA
   -folwarki – własność ziemska, gospodarstwo rolno-hodowlane, nastawionego na produkcję zboża i innych surowców przeznaczonych na zbyt, wykorzystujące pracę przymusową chłopów (pańszczyzna, czasami zastępował ją czynsz daniny lub dzierżawa) oraz pracę czeladzi (personel zamieszkujący folwark i „obrabiający go” za drobną opłatę i utrzymanie)
   
2. RZECZPOSPOLITA SPICHLERZEM EUROPY
   -popyt na zboże w krajach Europy Zachodniej
   -bogaciły się polskie miasta, zwłaszcza te nadwiślańskie (Kraków, Gdańsk, Toruń, Wilno na Litwie)
   
   STOLICE POLSKI:
   GNIEZNO/POZNAŃ (Mieszko I) – powstanie ludowe 1038 – „dwór fruwający”
   KRAKÓW (Kazimierz Odnowiciel)
   -Władysław Herman i Bolesław III Krzywousty –> Płock
   -rozbicie dzielnicowe
   -Przemysł II, Wacław II oraz Wacław III – koronowani w Gnieźnie
   – Przemysł II w Poznaniu rezydował
   – Władysław Łokietek koronowany w Krakowie
   -JAGIELLONOWIE – Kraków – unia polsko -litewska –> łatwiej się tam spotkać na sejm
   -1595 – pożar Wawelu
   WARSZAWA –> ZYGMUNT III WAZA- przenosi stolicę do rozwijającego się dynamicznie miasta (bliskość szlaków handlowych, Wisła)
   -1529 – inkorporacja Mazowsza do Królestwa Polskiego (od rozbicia dzielnicowego, 1351–1526 – jako lenno)
   -1569 sejm walny w Lublinie –> decyzja o odbywaniu w Warszawie sejmów walnych Rzeczypospolitej
   – dopiero tam koronacja Stanisława Leszczyńskiego i Zygmunta Augusta Poniatowskiego, inni w Krakowie
   
   
   
3. KOŚCIÓŁ W RON – „Państwo bez stosów”
   -arcybiskup gnieźnieński na czele kościoła (prymas) –> koronacje w Krakowie
   –podatki: z dóbr ziemskich, dziesięciny, annaty (opłaty wnoszone przez duchownych na rzecz papiestwa), świętopietrze („denar świętego Piotra” – opłata na rzecz papiestwa)
   
4. Reformacja w RON
   -luteranizm (niemieckojęzyczne części Królestwa – Prusy Królewskie, Prusy Zakonne, Inflanty oraz duże ośrodki handlowe – Gdańsk, Toruń, Elbląg – bliskość do Prus) –> mieszczaństwo chętnie przyjmuje
   -kalwinizm – szlachta i magnateria polska i litewska
   -antytrynitaryzm (arianizm) – odłam kalwiński – odrzuca Trójcę Świętą
   -prawosławni – podlegli Konstantynopolowi a potem patriarchatowi w Moskwie
   
   Umowy dot. dysydentów i katolików
   *UGODA SANDOMIERSKA – 1570 – luteranie, kalwini, bracia czescy (z husytyzmu) – wykluczyli arian.
   *AKT KONFEDERACJI WARSZAWSKIEJ – 1573
   *UNIA BRZESKA – 1596 – synod w Brześciu Litewskim – kościół prawosławny w RON podporządkowany papieżowi. Ci, którzy przystąpili do unii nazwani unitami lub grekokatolikami –> Kościół Grekokatolicki powstał
   
5. Działalność jezuitów
   -szkolnictwo

Aristotle said, 'Man is a social animal’. He can’t survive in isolation. Therefore, human beings interact with each other on a daily basis, having a deep impact on each other’s life.

He seen the culturally homogeneous city-states of Ancient Greece as the model of a political community. The highest goal of polis inhabitants was achieving the common goood and they can do it only if they have the support of the political community.

Political community
– a collectivity which includes people, who decide about a political direction, social and cultural life in their state (or different collectivity or polity).
– have public nature (charakter publiczny)
– members have possibility to political participation (e.g. they choose their representatives in democratic elections or they express their opinion in the referendum)
– they have equal rights (równe prawa)
-the main goal – achieving the common good

KONSTYTUCJA RP: https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm

PREAMUBŁA
In Constitution polish political community is defined as
„the Polish Nation – all citizens of the Republic,
Both those who believe in God as the source of truth, justice, good and beauty,
As well as those not sharing such faith but respecting those universal values as arising from other sources,
Equal in rights and obligations towards the common good – Poland”

Therefore „Nation” is the main goal –> the highest good

adittionaly:
article 1
„The Republic of Poland shall be the common good of all its citizens.”

article 4
„Supreme power in the Republic of Poland shall be vested in the Nation.”
„The Nation shall exercise such power directly or through their representatives.”

article 82.
„Loyalty to the Republic of Poland, as well as concern for the common good, shall be the duty of every Polish citizen.”

Wspólnota polityczna w filozofii:
Arystoteles (filozofia klasyczna)-
Platon –
Cyceron –
Tomasz Hobbes (teoria umowy społecznej)-
John Locke (liberalizm)-
J.J. Rousseau (teoria umowy społecznej)

KULTURA = WSPÓLNOTA POLITYCZNA???

Konstytucja: dziedzictwo kulturowe jest ważnym czynnikiem budującym tożsamość Polaków i jednoczącym wspólnotę polityczną (Preambuła, art. 6, art. 73). –> Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego

Polscy autorzy teorii dotyczących związków kultury, życia społecznego i polityki:

Ludwik Krzywicki – naród jest aktywną wspólnotą kultury, a kultura formą trwania narodu. Nośnikiem kultury jest język.
Feliks Koneczny –
Florian Znaniecki –
Stanisław Ossowski –
Maria Ossowska –
Józef Chałasiński –

Cywilizacje dominujące w Europie wg. Feliksa Konecznego:
-łacińska – wynikająca z filozofii, kultury i nauki greckiej, prawa rzymskiego i chrześcijańskiej moralności
– bizantyjska – spuścizna historyczna antycznego Rzymu i Bizancjum (prawo, normy obejmujące wszystkie strefy życia społecznego) – państwo jest kategorią nadrzędną ( dominująca rola państwa i prawa, podrzędna rola religii)
– turańska – wschód Europy , obszar Rosji, cywilizacja o charakterze militarnym, wojskowym – to dominuje nad innymi przejawami życia społecznego – religia jest tu nieistotna chyba że służy wzmocnieniu władzy politycznej
-żydowska – podporządkowanie spraw państwowych religii

*TEORIA ZDERZENIA CYWILIZACJI SAMUELA HUNTINGTONA – cywilizacje dążą do podboju i ekspansji, dlatego na ich stykach będą toczone wojny

What does it mean to be a city-state? What are some of the names of the Greek city- states? What were some of the similarities and differences between them?

Ancient Greeks lived in a mountainous land. The Mountains caused separate and independent city-states to form. They spread out to the surrounding islands and formed colonies. These colonies became city-states.

The Greeks called their city-state The Polis. Each Polis was an independent governing unit, and many had different types of government.

Different forms of government evolved in Greece between 750 B.C. and 500 B.C.

• Aristocracy-Power shifted to a class of noble landowners. In time, this became a hereditary ruling class.
• Oligarchy -a form of government in which power is in the hands of a small, wealthy elite
• Monarchy-A hereditary ruler exercised central power.
• Tyranny: one person takes power by force
• Democracy: all citizens share power, rule by the people

The Greeks built their polis around a hill called an Acropolis. On this high ground stood their main temple.

Generally (there are some differences in different poleis) social structure and citizenship in the Greek polis:

• Citizens free adult males had political rights and the responsibility of civic participation in government.
• Women and foreigners had no political rights.
• Slaves had no political rights.

Athens and Sparta were probably the two most famous and powerful city states in Ancient Greece. However, they were both very different.

ATHENS
– Location –  Attica (region)
– lacks fertile land
-Sea traders
-Protected from enemies – Long Walls – connected Athens’ main city to its ports at Piraeus Inland city

Athens developed a different type of government –  democracy.

Athenian Society -Three Classes:

• Athenian Citizens – only Athenian-born MEN had full political rights.
• Metics:
  -non-citizens born outside Athens.
  -artisans or merchants
  -they was free, but they have to paid taxes
  -couldn’t participate in politics/own land
• Slaves:
  -often captured in war (they could be well educated, sometimes they became teachers)
  -necessary to society  – a Slaves and Metics = over ½ of Athen’s population
  
  Types of state system in Athens
•  MONARCHY (basileus=king) – the monarchy fell because of the Dracon/Draco (One of the Tyrants who worked for reform, he wrote Draco’s laws/Draco’s code/ Draconian constitution. His code, written about 621 B.C became famous for its harshness; death was the penalty for almost all crimes.)
  
• THE WAY TO DEMOCRATION

-The reforms of Solon (introduced division into phyle – four phyle = Council of 400)
-Tyranny of Pisistratus (546-527 BC, he supported lower classes and clashed with nobles. His rule was considered positive. After hist dead, he  was succeeded by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus.
-Reforms of Cleisthenes (aprox. 507 BC) – he turned Athens into a Democracy (he introduced 10 Tribes and Council of 500)
-Pericles – he introduced in Athens a citizenship law (only person, who was born from two Athenians was citizen)

SPARTA
Geography: Laconia in ancient Greece,  In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon

A nation of soldiers Around 1100 B.C. the Spartans migrated to the Peloponnesus and built the city of Sparta. They enslaved the farmers who were there and called them helots. There was one Spartan to every five Helots

The Spartan army was so fierce the Spartans didn’t build a wall around the city, it was said they had a wall of men. The Helots rebelled in 600 B.C. and were defeated by the Spartans, after this the Spartans killed any helot who made trouble.

Sparta’s patron god was Ares, the god of war.

A Spartan’s entire life revolved around preparation for war:

• At birth, children were checked for defects, if they were not strong and healthy they were left on a hillside to die.
• When a boy reached the age of seven he was sent to live in a barracks and was trained in military and athletic skills.
• He was poorly fed and was encouraged to steal to eat.
• If he was caught he would be severely punished.
• After 13 years of training they began service in the army.
• He served until the age of sixty.
• He was allowed to marry at 20, but still had to live in the military camp with the other soldiers.
  
  Result of Militaristic Society
  -Unbeatable Army
  -Loss of Freedom
  – lack of big Science, Literature or Philosophy achievements

Spartan Society -Three Social Groups:
1. Spartiates
– descendants of invaders
– Controlled city-state.
– Land divided among them.

2. Perioikoi
-Half Citizens
– free, paid taxes, served in army.
– no political power
– farmed/traded

3. Helots – slaves (Largest)
– Spartans decided where they would worked/lived

Spartan Women
-Women: strong/raise warriors
-Received strict training
-taught to be devoted to city- state

Government in Sparta
1. Two Kings – Home and Military
2. Gerousia – Council of Elders -60 yrs. Old
-28 Men: wealthy aristocrats.
-Proposed laws and were court.
3. Apella:
-Accepted/Rejected laws passed by Gerousia
-Elected 5 Ephors
4. Ephors: 1 year terms
-Ensured kings followed laws
-Controlled Education

Danger on the Horizon Athens and Sparta were very different but they would unite against a common foe. The foe would be the Persians lead by king Xerxes.

Are you looking for something else?

Indie
1. Cywilizacje Doliny Indusu (Indus Valley Civilization)
-rzeki Indus i Ganges w 3 tys. p.n.e. (The Indus River and The Ganges River)
-ośrodki miejskie – Mohendżo Daro (Mohenjo-Daro) i Harappa (tzw. protomiasta – jak Jerycho czy Çatalhöyük)
-ludność zajmowała się uprawą roli i hodowlą zwierząt, rzemiosłem – handel z Mezopotamią
-upadek na skutek częstych powodzi, zastoju politycznego i ekonomicznego oraz najazdów Arabów.

2. Ariowie (Aryans) – w XVI w. p.n.e. przybyli z okolic Iranu i Afganistanu. Podbili mieszkającą tam ludność i założyli swoją cywilizację. Nie stworzyli państwa – to plemiona rywalizujące ze sobą (nomadic warriors – koczowniczy wojownicy).
-system kastowy – podział na grupy o określonych prawach i obowiązkach (bramini, kszatarjowie, wajśjowie, śiudrowie oraz wykluczeni ze społeczeństwa pariasi). A caste is a class of people in India.

3. Dynastia Maurjów (the Maurya Dynasty)- IV w. p.n.e. – II w. p.n.e – największy władca Aśoka (Asoka)

4. Religie i ich charakterystyka

Braminizm – wiara w pośmiertną wędrówkę dusz – reinkarnację (the belief in reincarnation– The Hindus believe, that they are born and reborn)

Hinduizm – dążenie do doskonałości, wiara w bogów (Wisznu, Śiwa, Brahma oraz kult Bogini Matki) – striving for perfection, faith in gods. Wiara w boskie pochodzenie krowy (więcej na ten temat znajdziesz >>TU<<) oraz dążenie do osiągnięcia stanu nirwany – wolności od wszystkich ziemskich wyrzeczeń.

Buddyzm – Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha:
-dążenie do nirwany i reinkarnację
-kształtowanie cnót (uczciwości, równowagi, radości, współczucia itd.)
-nie wolno im zabijać, kłamać brać nie swoich rzeczy, nie wolno im pić alkoholu, cudzołożyć)

5. Osiągnięcia
-sanskryt (Sanskrit) – pismo

Rygweda – zbiór hymnów religijnych

Święte księgi hinduizmu – Wedy (Vedas)

Nauka, matematyka i astronomia

Epopeje -Mahabharata (najdłuższy epos na świecie, piąta Weda), Ramajana (napisana sanskrytem)

Architektura – budowali tzw. stupy – święte kopce

CHINY

1. Cywilizacja starożytnych Chin rozwinęła się w IV tys. p.n.e. nad dwoma rzekami: Huang he (ho) – Żółta Rzeka oraz Jangcy (Niebieska Rzeka).
   
   In ancient times, the Chinese depended on rivers for irrigation and transportation. They highly valued the ability to control floodwaters and to develop irrigation systems. Chinese history began in the Huang River-Yellow River(Loess Plateau – Wyżyna Lessowa)
   
2. Według legend panowało Trzech Dostojnych (odniesienie do mitologii) i Pięciu Cesarzy (królowie – mędrcy, założyciele państwa chińskiego)
3. W III tys. p.n.e zaczęło rozwijać się państwo chińskie – dynastia Shang. Na czele stał „Syn Niebios” (Son of Heaven or Tianzi) – zwierzchnik armii oraz najwyższy kapłan.
   
   The first Chinese dynasty – the Shang dynasty, would dominate the region until about 1122 b.c. Next dynasty – Zhou overthrew (obalili, overthrow – obalić, usunąć) the Shang and they lasted (przetrwali) until 256 b.c. China broke apart and the empire was divided into several states.
   
   Kolejna dynastia Zhou (Czou) – rozpad Chin na wiele walczących ze sobą królestw.
   
4. W III w. Szy – Huang – ti („pierwszy cesarz”) zjednoczył państwo. On też rozpoczął budowę Wielkiego Muru. Następnie władzę przejęła dynastia Han, a państwo podzieliło się.
   
   

1. Konfucjonizm – twórcą Konfucjusz – VI/V w. p.n. e. Człowiek z natury jest dobry, powinien działać na rzecz społeczności i wypełniać swoje obowiązki wobec rodziny i państwa. Aby mogło powstać idealne społeczeństwo każda jednostka musi uczyć się i opanować zasady postępowania. Społeczeństwem powinni rządzić ludzie mądrzy, rządzący ku pożytkowi wszystkich.
2. Osiągnięcia:
   -pismo piktograficzne (potem ideograficzne) – na papierze i jedwabiu za pomocą pędzelka i tuszu (!)
   -nauka, technika, rzemiosło – jedwab, papier, umieli wytapiać i odlewać żelazo, wytwarzali porcelanę, znali proch
   -architektura i sztuka- Wielki Mur Chiński oraz Terakotowa Armia

Civilization – human society with its well developed social organizations, or the culture and way of life of a society or country at a particular period in time.

Culture – the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time.

A civilization has often been understood as a larger and „more advanced” culture.  Civilisation is a broader concept (szersze pojęcie) than the culture.

State – is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory.

Types of writting/scripts:

Cuneiform (clay tablets)

Egyptian hieroglyphs (Epigraphy )

https://pl.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/ancient-mesopotamia/v/ancient-mesopotamia

MESOPOTAMIA is called „The land between rivers” – Euphrates and Tigris. Sometimes also called fertile crescent due to the rich soil (gleba), silt (muł), found there.

It included parts of what are now Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel.

1. Natural conditions ( why there? )
2. The state organization and political system:
   a. Sumer,
   b. Akkadian state,(Sargon z Akadu),
   c. Babylonia,(Hammurabi, Nabuchodonozor), zasada talionu obowiązywała tylko wolnych obywateli, jeżeli poszkodowanym był niewolnik lub tzw. człowiek królewski płacono grzywnę
   d. Assyria (Sargon II, Aszurbanipal, Tiglatpilesar)
   e. despotism (monarchia despotyczna)
   f. society – społeczeństwo (warstwa panująca i kapłani, ludzie wolni, ludzie zależni od świątyni – ludzie królewscy, niewolnicy)

Religia i wierzenia
– Polytheism (politeizm)-is the belief in multiple deities or goods

Osiągnięcia

Źródło: Materiał pobrano i udostępniono ze strony https://slideplayer.pl/slide/13089815/

Zasada talionu – lex talion- law of exact retaliation – „An eye for an eye” principle  – kara jest identyczna jak skutek przestępstwa (kara odzwierciedlająca).

STRONA O CYWILIZACJI SUMERÓW – proszę poczytać o bogach sumeryjskich: https://www.starozytnysumer.pl/podstrony/bogowie.html

1. Szybki rozwój państw położonych nad Oceanem Atlantyckim – imperia kolonialne (cechy charakterystyczne i które państwa w jaki sposób się rozwinęły – Portugalia i Hiszpania >< Anglia, Holandia, Francja)
2. Zmiany na wsi (Anglia).
3. Kredyty, banki, giełdy, weksle.
4. Kompanie handlowe.
5. Rewolucja cen
6. Dualizm gospodarczy